Religion

Souls

Both humans and animals have souls; in fact, everything in the world is said to have a soul. When a person dies, her soul becomes anito. The Bagobo believe in left-and right-hand souls which become evil and good spirits, respectively, after death.

Rituals

Sacrifice is a major element in Filipino religion, and as a rule, neither animial flesh nor the intoxicating beverages made from rice or sugar cane are consumed outside of it. Other valuable goods such as knives and textiles are also sacrificed. Since the anitos do not have physical existence, they only consume the sacrifices spiritually; the physical element is left to the human participants to consume, although this must be done in a properly respectful way. Hence a knife which has been offered to the spirits can not later be sold, as that would essentially nullify the sacrifice. Offerings are made constantly, to petition the anitos for good things such as harvests, and for the remediation of bad ones, such as illnesses. Thus, however much Filipinos may live in dread of the spirit world, there is also a pleasant side to religion, since ceremonies tend to end in feasting and drinking.

Of prayers there are two types: direct appeals to the spiritual powers, and formulas. The latter are recitals in a ceremonial contexts of mythical instances in which anitos aided their human charges, in the hope that the power of suggestion will again lead to a similar outcome.

The vast majority of rituals are those for the cure of sickness; there may be different rites for each disease or type of disease, since each may be caused by a different spirit. Agricultural rites are also prevalent. The taking of a head was thought by many to greatly aid the efficacy of almost any ceremony.

See Critical Rituals.

Anito

All Filipino religion has as its basis the idea of supernatural beings called anito, or sometimes diwata. Anito is an ancient and widespread concept in the East Indies, and comprises three levels of entity arrayed in a continuum of importance:

• deities or gods in the normal sense
• a tier of benevolent or malevolent spirits, largely animistic
• the souls of dead human beings

The various anitos, including ones on different levels, have much the same passions and character flaws as living people. They interact with each other in a businesslike way, buying, selling and trading with each other; and human beings relate to them in this way also, rather than being worhipful in the Judaic sense. To obtain a good crop, it is simply wise to sacrifice to certain gods; to remain healthy it is simply prudent to avoid contact with forest spirits; etc..

The top level of gods proper are assigned names and personalities; they may be few in number or, as with the Ifugao, there may be many hundreds of them. They seem to have a lot in common with Hindu deities, and may have sprung from a common origin. They live in different layers of the sky corresponding to lineages, and tend not to be "good" or "bad" as such, but rather each is rather a mixed lot, as is true of the Greek gods. The more important deities are less likely he is to be invoked directly, as they are thought to be impossibly remote.

The second-tier spirits do not have names, but are classified by type; for example there water spirits, mountain spirits, forest spirits, etc. Some of these are inherently demonic, aspiring to cause harm or death or some other mischief to human beings; others can be of great help to men if propitiated.

Since the souls of relatives are most likely to intercede on behalf of a living individual, a kind of ancestor worship is practiced, but as with the dealings with the other gods, this is regarded as a matter of practical necessity and 'one good turn deserves another' rather than the filial piety of China.

In the barangay system of the coastal peoples, the rich man who acts as chief of the community must present elaborate ceremonies for the general welfare in order to maintain his prestige. These are given to promote economic prosperity and the general health and longevity of the members.

The Bagobo have nine heavens, each of which has a presiding god. These gods are similar to those of Hindu religion, but are of local invention. They are inaccessible to man and are not worshipped; they mainly exists as mythological beings. There are lower gods which can be prayed to, including the Creator, Pamulak Manobo (Plant Person); the Protector, Tigyama; the Head of the Waters Hero, Malaki t'Olu K'Waig, who helps with illnesses; the rice ceremony god Tarabume; the brass workers' god Paneyangen; the hunters' god Abog; the warriors' god Mandarangan; and a god named Tagamaling who alternates months as god and devil.